History Mughals
Sources of Information The Ain - i - Akbari of Abul Fazl is a mine, of information. Some information is given by the Dasnir - ul - Amals or official handbooks, which were prepared in the time of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
The Iqbal - Namah Jahangir by Muhammad Khan, the Badshah Namah of Abdul Hamid Lahori, the Tazuk - i - Jahangir, the Tabaqat - i Akbari of Nizam - ud - Din and Muntakhab - ul - Tawarikh of Badauni also give useful information.
The writings of foreigners like Sir Thomas Roe, Bernier, Hawkins, Manucci, Terry, etc., also throw light on certain aspects of the Mughal Administration.
Nature of Mughal Government
The mughal administrative system was a military rule and was necessarily a centralised despotism. King was the head of the State . The Mughal Administration presented a combination of Indian and extra - Indian elements ; or , more correctly , it was the Perso - Arabic system in Indian setting .
The Mughal Government was military in its origin and though in time it became rooted to the soil, it retained its military character to the last . All the civil servants were Mansabdars or members of the army .The land revenue system of the Mughals was based on the old Hindu system prevailing in the country . The old Hindu revenue officials were employed by the Mughal Government and ordinarily were not interfered with . In the Mughal period, the state was the largest manufacturer. The Emperor gave robes of honour or Khilats to his mansabdars. The Mughal Government was a highly centralized autocracy. The Crown was the pivot of the entire administrative machinery.
The Mughal Government was called a Kaghzi Raj or paper government . A large number of books had to be maintained .
The attitude of the Mughal Government towards law and justice was opposed to modern conceptions. It was the weakest in this matter. The Government did not perform its responsibility of maintaining peace and security in the rural areas. The judiciary was independent. The administration of Justice through Hindu Pundits and Qazis owed nothing to the king. Aurangzeb had the Muslim law codified for the guidance of his Qazis. Fatwa - i - Alamigri is a digest of Muslim Law .
Position of Mughal Emperor
The Mughal Emperor- was the head of the administration . Mughal Emperor was the ruler of the Muslims only . He was nominally responsible to the Muslim public or Jamait for his conduct as a king . There was no check on his powers , but in actual practice big autocracy was tempered by the fear of a rebellion . Customary law of the country also put a check . The Ulema had the power to depose a king , but their Fatwas were a mere- scrap of paper so long as the Mughal Emperor had a strong army at his disposal . There was no accepted law of succession among the Mughals . Mughal Emperor in India did not recognise any Khalifa . The Mughal emperor enjoyed many prerogatives . Jharokha - i - Dirshan was one of those prerogatives . This custom was started by Akbar but was stopped by Aurangzeb . Many people looked upon the sovereign as a partial incarnation of God .
The Mughal kings worked very hard . They kept longer hours and enjoyed lesser holidays . The orders of the monarch were issued usually through Farmans .
There were fivè kinds of seals which were used for different purposes .
One seal was used for titles , high appointments , Jagirs and sanctions of large amounts .
Second Another seal was used for letters to foreign kings .
The third seal was used for judicial transactions .
The fourth was used for all matters connected with the departments of the palace .
The fifth seal was used for all other matters .
The most important seal was the Uzuk seal and it was entrusted to the most dependable person . Some Emperors used to keep the seal with their Queens . In important Farmans , the mark of the royal hand was put at the bottom .
The Mughal Emperor had no regular Council of Ministers . The Wazir and the Diwan were the richest persons below the Emperor , but the other officers were in no sense his colleagues . They were admittedly inferior to him and deserved rather to be called secretaties than minister . It was not necessary for the king to consult his ministers on all occasions . The Mughal Government was a one - man rule and Aurangzeb was his own Prime Minister . n The Mughal Emperor had to play double role . He had to govern al the people in is dominions as their king and also act as the missionary , defender and agent of the creed of a section of his subjects .
The Ghuslkhana
Ghuslkhana was a place of retirement for the King where importan business was transacted .It is only the highly placed officials who were allowed to come to this place. Permits regulated admission to Ghuslkhana . It was the duty of the Superintendent of Ghuslkhana to see the rules . If an official was guilty of an offence against decorum in Ghuslkhana , he was not allowed to leave till he paid the fine inflicted on him .
Departments
There were many departments of the Government , but the following were the most important :
The Exchequer and Revenue under the High Diwan or Diwan - in Ala .
The Imperial Household under the Khani - Saman or High Steward .
The Military Pay and Accounts Office under the Imperial Bakshi .
Canon Law , both Civil and Criminal , under the Chief Qazi .
Religious endowments and charity under the Chief Sadar .
Censorship of Public Morals under the Muhtasib .
The Artillery under the Mir Atish or Darogha - i - Topkhana ..
Intelligence and Posts under the Darogha of Dak . Chauki .
Mint under a Darogha .
The Vakil of the deceased. His other office of the Vakil seems to have the articles , making of when Akbar was a minor and Bairam Khan acted of an estimate Deputy . After tha, this office lost its importance .
The Wazir or Diwan
Wazir was the Prime Minister . He was the head of Reish Department . The Wazir was the highest official of the Revenu Department , but in course of time , he came to exercise control over other departments also . Wazir controlled the army , when the king was either incompetent , or a minor or a pleasure - seeker . The post of Wazir was a civil . In abnormal times he was expected to perform military duties . The office of the Wazir got revenue paper and returns and dispatches from the Provinces and the armies in the field . Payments orders had to be signed by him . All payments were made through his department only . Emperor pass orders under his direction . Revenue affairs are settled by him . He had two assistants known as the Diwan - i - Am or Diwan of Salaries and the Diwan - i - Khas or Diwan of the crown - lands. After the death of Aurangzeb. Wazir became virtually the ruler of the state .
Mir Bakshi
Bakshi was the Paymaster . Pay bills of all civil and military officers were scrutinised and passed by the Paymaster . He also recruited the soldiers . He keeps an account of the number of horses , maintained by the Mansabdars . He was called Imperial Paymaster ; he was responsible for disbursement of salaries and their expenditure when the army was actually fighting .
Khan - i - Saman
He was in charge of the Emperor's department of manufactures , stores and supply required for military and household purposes . He controlled the personal servants of the Emperor and was also in charge of the daily expenditure , food , stores , tents etc. of the Emperor .On account of the importance of the office , trust - worthy and influential men occupied it . He exercised great influence in certain cases the Khan - i - Saman also became like Wazir .
Sadar - us - Sudur
He was the Chief Sadar of the Empire . Person with superior character was selected . He was the connecting unit between the King and the people . Guardian of Islamic Law . Spokesman of the Ulema . It was his duty to look into and decide cases relating grants . He was the Almoner of the Emperor . He distributed the money for charitable purposes . There was a Sadar in every province . While sending the Provincial Sadars make familiar them with the names of those who held rent - free lands .
Muhtasib
He was the censor of public morals . It was his duty to enforce the commands of the Prophet and suppress all those practices , which were unIslamic . The punishment of heretical opinions , blasphemy against the Prophet and neglect of the five daily prayers and observance of Ramzan by Mohammadans also lay within the province of censor . In Aurangzeb reign , their duty is of demolishing newly temples . The Muhtasib was required to go through streets with soldiers and demolish and plunder liquor shops , distilleries and gambling dens .
Qazi - ul - Quzat or Chief Qazi
He was the highest judicial officer and responsible for administration of justice . He was the judge in religious suits . He appointed Qazis of the Cities , Districts and the provinces . The Muftis helped these Qazis .
Diwan - i - Buyutat
He registers the wealth and property of the deceased . He was required to calculate the amount due from the deceased to the state and deduct the same from his property .The balance was returned to the heirs of the deceased . His other duties were the fixation of the prices of the articles , making of provision for the royal Karkhanas and the preparation of an estimate of their output and expenditure . Superintendent of Artillery He was a subordinate of Mir Bakshi or Paymaster . The Mir Atish was required to make arrangements for the defence of the Imperial Palace Fort . Due to personal contact with Emperor got great influence . He was in charge of all kinds of artillery .
Darogha - i - Dak Chauki
He was Superintendent of Intelligence and Posts . He had his agents everywhere . Horses were stationed at various stages for the use of the messengers . He was in charge of news - writers and news carriers . He had to send weekly news .
The Imperial Newswriter
He was head of intelligence agency and responsible for gathering information from every part of the empire . He also got reports from the newswriters .
Other important officials were the
Mir - Bahri ( Revenue Secretary )
Mir Barr ( Superintendent of Forests )
Qur Begi ( Lord Standard Bearer )
Akht Begi ( Superintendent of the Royal Stud )
Mushrif ( Chief Admiral and officer of harbours )
Nazir - i - Buyutad ( Superintendent of Imperial workshops )
Mustaufi ( Auditor - General ) 8 )
Awarjah Nawis ( Superintendent of daily expenditure at courts )
Khwan Salar ( Superintendent - of Royal Kitchen ) and
Mir Arz ( Officer who presented petitions to the Emperor )
Provincial Administration The Administrative agency in the Provinces of the Mughal Empire was an exact miniature of that of the Central Government . The number of provinces varied from time to time . 24 In the time of Akbar , their number was 15. In the time of jahangir , there were 17 provinces . The number increased to 22 in the time of Shahjahan . In the time of Aurangzeb , the number was 21 only .
Subedar Head of the province was known as the Sahib - i - Subah , Subahdar or Nazim . The Diwan , Bakshi , Faujdar , Kotwal , Qazi , sadar , Amil , Bitikchi , Potdar or Khizandar , Waqa - i - Navis , Qanungo and Patwari , assisted him . Provinces were divided into Sarkars and Parganas . All the ad ministration of the province was centralised at the capital town . The Mughals were essentially an urban people and no wonder they neglected the villagers . The Subahdars ere transferred after intervals of two or three years . It was feared that if they continue to work at one place for a long time , they might abuse their powers or become independent . In spite of this , the governors were cruel and rapacious .
Diwan
Provincial Diwan was the second officer in the province . He was also the rival of the Subahdar . Both the Subahdar and Diwan were to act as a check on each other . The Imperial Diwan or Diwan - i - Ashraf selected the Provincial Diwan . It was his duty to carry out the orders of the Imperial Diwan and also to keep himself in touch with him . He was to collect revenue , try revenue cases and improve cultivation . He had control over the purse of the province and no payment could be made without his sanction . He was required to co - operate with the Subahdar in the administration of the province . If there was a difference opinion between the Subahdar and the Diwan , the matter was referred to the Emperor .
Fauidar
Faujdars were appointed to help the Subahdar . They helped the Subahdar to maintain law and order in the country and punish the rebellious zamindars . They were also to help the Amils in their work of revenue collection .
They were put in charge of important sub - divisions of the province . Their appointment and dismissal was in the hands of the Subahdar . They were commanders of the provincial troops .
Sadar
His main duty was to supervise the Sayurghals or rent - free lands granted for religious and charitable purposes . He was more independent than the Diwan . Amil He was a man of piety and learning .
He could grant lands and allowances on his own initiative . Qazis and Mir Adils worked under him .
Amil was a revenue collector and had many duties to perform . He was required to deal very effectively with the rebellious Zamindars . It was his duty to see that the quality of land . He sees the work of measurement of land . He was to supervise the work of revenue collection . He was to examine the registers of the Karkuns , Muquddams and Patwaris . He was required to submit monthly reports .
Bakshi He was the paymaster of , the provincial forces . He worked under Mir Bakshi .
Bitikchi He acted as a check on the Amil and enjoyed the same status as that of the Amil . He prepared abstracts of revenue every season and was required to send an annual report . He supervises the work of Qanungos . He was required to be a good writer and a skilful accountant . He was also required to be a master of the customs and regulations of his district .
Potdar or Khizandar
His duty was to receive money from the cultivators and keep the same in the treasury . Whenever a payment was made to him , he issued receipts and kept their account . He was not to make any payment without a voucher signed by the Diwan .
Kotwal
Kotwal was a police officer of the town , but he enjoyed magisterial powers in certain cases . He was responsible for the maintenance of law and order in the city . He kept watch at night and patrolled the city . He kept a register of houses and frequented buildings . He examined weights and measures and discovered thieves . He made a list of property of those who had no heir and also of the dead and missing persons . He was to see that no woman was burnt against her . will . He was to employ spies from among the obscure residents and observe . the income and expenditure of the various classes . The Ain - i - Akbari describes his duties . He should use his discretion in the reduction of prices and not allow purchases to be made outside the city . Kotwal should check the number of persons in the prison and ascertain answers of the charges against them .
Wagal - Navis
He was the recorder of occurrences in the province . It was with the help of this person that the Central Government was kept in touch with the affairs of the provinces .
Sarkars or Districts Every province was divided into many Sarkars or Districts . The Faujdar was in charge of the Sarkar . He was to carry out the orders of the Governor and also keep himself constantly in touch with them .
Parganas or Mahals Every Sarkar was divided into many Parganas or Mahals . In every Pargana , there was a Shiqadar , an Amil , a Potdar and a few Shiqdar was in charge of the administration of the Pargana . His duty was to maintain law and order within his jurisdiction .
The Kotwal was the chief administrator of a town . Every city was divided into many wards or mohallas . It has already been pointed out that neither the Provincial Government nor the Central Government interfered with the people living in villages . Every village was considered to be an autonomous commonwealth .
Relations between Centre and Provinces Central Government exercised considerable control over the provinces . The various officials in a province were transferred from one province to another after certain intervals . The Mughal Emperors went on tours from time to time and the people could make their complaints in person . The system of Dak Chaukies was made more efficient and thereby the Mughal capital was linked up with various parts of the Mughal Empire .
Military Organisation
The armed forces were divided into five main divisions , viz . cavalry , elephantry , infantry , artillery and match - lockmen and naval or river craft . The cavalry has six , categories troops .
(1) Contingents supplied by tributary Rajas .
(2) the Mansabdari troops , which were subject to regulations regarding Dagh ( branding ) and Chera ( descriptive roll ) and muster .
(3) the Ahadis were the personal contingents of the emperor and had a separate commandant their own .
(4) the Barwardi were those skilled soldiers who could not maintain good horses .
(5) the Dakhili whose horses were branded but who were not attached to any Mansabdar .
(6) Kumakis were those auxiliaries whose services were temporarily lent to certain Mansabdars . The elephantry , there were seven categories of them . Their allowances varied according to their grade and quality .
The infantry were divided into a number of classes . Some of them were mere camp followers and menial servants . Some of them were employed as grooms , sappers , tentmen , etc.
There were also real fighters such as archers , musketeers , fencers , wrestlers , gladiators , etc.
As regards the artillery , guns and cannon were of different sizes and mobility . Some guns were very heavy and some were very light . Elephants hauled up the Gajnals and light pieces of cannon were car ried on the backs of camels .
The artillery was under the special command of the emperor . It was supplied to commanders as and when necessary . Some com manders had match lockmen under them . The Mughals had no navy . The Arab sailors carried on the overseas trade . The Mughal emperors were absolutely helpless against those who could work on the sea . There , was no division of the Mughal army into regiments or other graded divisions . A force 5,000 strong was usually a loose collection of smaller and ungraded units of varying sizes . The soldiers and commanders were required to make their own arrangements for their supplies . There were no uniform and fixed standards of living in barracks or , on battlefields . There was no provision for regular parades . The only means of acquiring military training was employment in hunting , suppression of revolt and actual war . The result was that the soldier deputed in a province became slack and indolent . As the soldiers were not paid regularly , they oppressed the people to get whatever they wanted .
Police Organisation
The Mughal police organisation is of three types village police , district police and urban police . Mughal authorities allowed the old system coming down from the times of the Hindu rulers to continue . The villagers were made ; responsible for any loss incurred within their limits or any crime committed within their jurisdiction . The Faujdar was responsible for the maintenance of law and order in the district or Sarkar . His primary duties were the policing of the roads , the suppression of disorder of any kind and the collection of the state dues from the rebellious villages with the help of force . The punishments inflicted by them were very often cruel . The Kotwal was in charge of the urban , police . He was required ; to keep a register of houses and roads . He divided the town into quarters and placed an assistant in direct charge of each , quarter . The assistant was required to report daily arrivals and departures . The kotwal kept a small army of spies or detectives . He was required to apprehend thieves and find out the stolen , goods . He fixed local prices . He checked weights and measures . He was required to maintain an inventory of the properties of the persons dying intestate .
Public security varied from place to place and time to time . Professional , robbers were always to be found in the , hills , and on the countryside where jungles were in plenty .
Finance
Finance Department was under Diwan - i - Ala . He appointed a number of officers to help him .
1. Mustaufi acted as the Accountant General of the Empire . He looked into the accounts of all the Departments in the State .
2. Diwan - i - Khalsa looked after the management of crown lands . Diwan - i - Jagir exercised administrative control over Jagirs .
3.Diwan - i - Buyutat looked after State factories called the Kar khanas and heirless properties .
4.Faujih looked after the accounts of the military department . There were Mushrifs for auditing the accounts of different departments sections or individual Karkhanas
5.The provincial Diwans and the staffs under them worked under Diwan - i - Ala . The revenue of the State fluctuated from time to time . There were many sources of income . The Zakat was taken only from the Muslims at the rate of 1/40 of , their property . The duty on imports and exports was 2 % ad valorem for Muslims and 5 % for Hindus . The State also had monopoly of indigo and got some income from it . The revenue from mines , and war booty was known as Khums . The State owned more than 100 Karkhanas . The emperor received valuable presents from his nobles on certain occasions and those were source of income . The State realised tolls and ferry taxes from passengers by road or river . The sales tax was charged on sales in the market . The most fruitful Source of income was the land revenue .
The rent from Khalsa lands was realised by the salaried officers of the State . The chief heads of the expenditure were salaries payable to nobles , courtiers , Mansabdars , Qazis and the other staff , the royal household , the maintenance of the army , gifts and rewards conferred by the emperor , cost of building and maintenance of royal buildings , forts , Mosques , tombs , etc.
Administration Of Justice
Mughal emperor was the fountainhead of justice . His court was the highest court of appeal . Mir Ariz presents the application from people before the emperor . Quazi - ul - Qazut was the highest judicial officer of country and responsible for administration of justice in the country . All other Quazi are subordinate to him .
Qazi was primarily a judicial officer . Qazi tried both civil and criminal cases of both Hindus and Muslims . They see their custom and usages while deciding the cases of the both . These quazis are supposed to be just , impartial and a man of good sense . But it is not SO .
Qazi was also required to discharge civil , religious and clerical duties . He act as a revenue officer while collecting jiziyas . Muslim law does not grow according to the changing circumstances the country .
No emperor can interface in the administration of justice . The court of secular law was prescribed over by Governor , faujdar's and Lotwals . Some times bramhans were appointed to decide cases of Hindus .
There are also political courts , which try political nature of cases like rebellion , rioting , theft , robbery , murder etc.
Punishments
There were three groups of crimes :
Offences against god
Offence against state
Offences against private individual
For these there was given four kinds of punishment
( 1 ) Hadd
( 2 ) Tazir
( 3 ) Qisas
( 4 ) Tashir
1.Hadd It was a punishment given for offences against god and it is of severe and rigorous nature
2.Tazir It was punishable by public reprimand , dragging of the offender , boxing of the cars of offender and scourging
3.Qisas It was in the nature of retaliation and the relative of the viction were allowed to demand realisation or compensation
4.Tashir It involved public degradation as like shaving the head of offenders putting him on ass facing the tails covered with dust , and garlanded him with shoes etc.
The qazis are supposed to be impartial , just and a person of magnificent qualities . But in the period of Mughals just opposite happened . The department of justice becomes the most corrupt of that time . The qazis were accused of generally misusing their power . Bribery was generally seen .
This all made the position of judiciary to the bottom in the times of Mughal . The Mughal Empire was vast and the emperor's were lover of justice . But due to the corruption all the dream of the emperor of a just administration failed to the foot .
Criticism of Mughal Administrative System Reference may be made to some of the points of criticism leveled against the Mughal administrative system .
1. Mughal administration was essentially foreign in its character . They generally give preference to the foreigners that is the officials from Persia were given preference to make them high officials in army and others . The high posts were reserved for foreigners ; a very large number of smaller jobs were given to the Indians .
2.Economic and social results of Mughal rule were disastrous to the prosperity and happiness of the people of India . It is pointed that the Mughals left much richer than they found it when they came to this country . They did not send any money to any foreign country
This criticism is not fair because they stayed and remained here with the wealth . They had not done as like the British who squandered the wealth here .
3 ) Historian says that the Mughal Government was extremely , limited , materialistic . They say that the socialistic activities were left to the society and not paid any attention to it . But it is not so they had given their eyes of administration on various things like regulation of weights and measures and prices of commodities , stopping forced sati , control of drugs and prostitution etc. Thus the Mughal State was not only a police state but also something more than that . Din - i - Ilahi These are the religious views of Akbar . His object was to establish a national religion , which would be acceptable to the Hindus and Muslims alike . Akbar became the spiritual guide of the nation and saw in the performance of that duty , a means of pleasing God . Certain ceremonials of the Din - i - Ilahi were prescribed . There were four grades of the followers of Din - i - Ilahi . Those grades entailed readiness to sacrifice for the Emperor property , life , honour and religious . Whoever sacrificed all the four , possessed the four degrees and whoever sacrificed one of the four , possessed only one degree .
Din - i - llahi contains good points of all religions . The chief exponent of Din - i - Ilahi was Akbar himself . Din - i - llahi was the crowning expression of the idealism of Akbar . It was never forced upon any man . Historian says that Akbar wanted to bring together men who were willing to submit to his spiritual guidance and infuse into them his own catholic spirit and principles of action and not through , coercion .
Mughals
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